The whole system of pagan sacrifices and certain prayers are the evidence of monotheistic perception of the Chuvash. In spring before cultivating the land, they made sacrifices and asked for rich crops. And only to him (God). Before depasturing the cattle during corns ripening they again ask only his blessing for cattle and corns. And in autumn, when they leave fields for home and thresh first corns, when cattle is herded in a cattle-pen because of snow, they again make gratifying sacrifices to God in order to get rich crops and good cattle offspring. In these prayers they never mention other gods, they mention the only God and thank him for the given good. But except for sacrifices made to this only God there are also other small sacrifices when people pray to house-spirits or kiremets. However, this can’t be identified with sacrifices made to Tura. These are small purifying sacrifices , due to them people try to live in good relations with evil spirits, otherwise they would do much harm, torment with diseases and sufferings. The characteristic feature of sacrifices is that animals of white colour are usually offered in sacrifice, during field sacrifices – a white mare, during bloody sacrifices – a white sheep. The Chuvash consider white to be God’s favourite colour, even the folk song tells about this:

On the occasion of sacrifices and festivals the Chuvash wear a white shirt; southern Chuvash pagans wear white felt hats, earlier, as the old say, the most part of their outer clothing was also white. But now the Chuvash not only walk away from God of their ancestors, but they stop wearing white clothes and like the Russians wear clothes of black and other colours, that is why Tura is angry with them and sends various miseries, bad crops, hunger, diseases…

God is always fighting with the most evil spirit, Shuytan. The traces of dualism, the eternal fight of the good with the bad, the light and the darkness can be found in Chuvash mythology. Shuytan always mocks at God by lifting his buttock towards the sky. And God attacks him with a lightning and wants to kill him, but very often he is weak against him, because Shuytan is insidious, he can outwit God. He, having heard “the old man’s singing” aslaty avatat, as the Chuvash call thunder, changes and thus avoids thunderbolts. Thunder and lightning come from God himself. If he talks, his word becomes thunder. The Chuvash name of thunder aslaty avatat – “the old man talks” comes from this. When the lightning strikes, they say: ascha schapat. This means: “the old man strikes”. He usually strikes in order to clear the earth from the evil, otherwise they would destroy everything, and even crops won’t grow for people”.

In heaven God is not presented alone. There are also other good spirits near which serve him, such as:

Торâ омêнче çўрекен – Preceeding God (that is “fulfilling God’s wishes”, “God’s servant”).
Мâн Торâ омêнче тâракан – Standing in front of Great God (that is “the Great God’s servant”).
Мâн Торâ алâкне оçакан – Opening the gates of Great God (that is “the outside door-keeper”).
Мâн Торâ алâкне хопакан – Closing the gates of Great God (that is “the inside door-keeper”).

Southern Chuvash call them with one name pireshty (compare pers. feriste “angel”.)

Migrant birds that in autumn fly away from fields and forests, also fly to heaven, to God to pass winter there. Most of all, God loves the swallow. This is explained by the fact that the swallow, not being afraid of him, reaches God and builds its nest near him, when other birds live farther from him. It is original tha in Chuvash mythology God like many other good and evil spirits has a father and a mother: Torashe ‘God’s father’, Toramash ‘God’s mother’. Nothing is known about them except for their names, they do not participate in the world management and in his business; most likely they appeared analogically or as a result of subsequent influence of Christianity. There are no traces of them in the old sacrificial prayers, they pray to the only God everywhere. But in the sacrificial prayer against the evil eye God’s mother is mentioned, however it is nothing else but the charm yumschy. When sacrifice ends, the same words are whispered either on vodka, or on water. In some parts of these charms God’s mother appear, but always together with God. For example, in charms against jaundice (sar chir):

However, even these charms addressed to God’s mother are of the later origin, the influence of Russian Christianity is so noticeable, that in some places together with Mother of God they mention anhel (angel) and pray to him. In earlier charms yumschy, that is in those where many archaisms remained, God’s mother was not mentioned, just God himself. When describing northern Chuvash regions, V. K. Magnitsky mentions several kind spirits that live in heaven, near God’s mother:
Тор амâшê омêнче тâракан - Standing in front of Mother of God (that is “God’s Mother’s servant”).
Тор амâшне алâкне оçакан - Opening the gates of Mother of God (that is “the outside door-keeper near the room of Great God’s wife”).
Тор амâшне алâкне хопакан - Closing the gates of Mother of God (that is “the inside door-keeper in the room of Great God’s wife”).

Except for these kind spirits living near God and his mother, Pyulehsche and Kepe also live there; we’ll aquaint the reader with them on the next pages. The Chuvash, turned to Christianity, also call Russian God Tura/Tora and attribute to him traditions and myths of the old pagan faith. The folk monotheistic faith of the Chuvash doesn’t see the difference in this new God. On the contrary, the Chuvash pagans are so monotheistic that in many places they watch in bewilderment how the Russians honour sacred images and saints to the point of idolatry, even Chuvash Christians don’t know about either the homage of saints, or the worship of God.
The rituals of the Chuvash pagan faith become apparent during sacrifices. The sacrifice is called chyuk, the same word also refers to any propitiatory, gratifying and expiatory prayer, during which they sacrifice slaughtered cattle or other food to the god Tura and other spirits. The propitiatory gratifying sacrifice one can only make to the God, since he spreads his benefit on seeds and cattle, provides rain and fertility, all this people can ask only from him, that is why gratitude refers only to Him. Sacrifices to other spirits – Kiremets, hert-shchurts are considered to be expiatory. The spirit is given something, so as to establish good relationships with him and make him friendly, otherwise he will send illnesses to them.

In an attempt to systematize sacrifices of the Chuvash and determine their consecution in a calendar an interesting thing strikes our eye, which is the following: the Chuvash, as a nation, were closely connected with nature; when making sacrifices they didn’t orientate on the motion and change of heavenly bodies, but directed their attention to their main occupation, which distinguished them from other Turki-tatar people – farming.

It isn’t possible to determine the consecution of sacrifices of the Chuvash according to the calendar; it’s possible to determine it only according to certain periods of cultivation of land. Just as labour of the farmer includes spring ploughing, sowing and autumn harvesting, chuvash sacrifices are divided into those of spring and autumn. In spring there are needed favourable weather conditions for ploughing, sowing and good growth of seeds. That’s why all spring sacrifices without exception are considered to be propitiatory. In autumn when grain is harvested, and vegetables are gathered, the cattle which pastured on succulent meadows has grown and has bred and now stands in the cattle-pen, and beehives are full of golden sweet honey, in other words god’s gifts are gathered together autumn thank-offerings for grain, cattle and bees, for well-being of God take place. Most offerings as a rule are yearly sacrifices, which should take place every year. Except them there are sacrifices, which take place rarer in two, three or five years. Occasionally: when building a house, calving, if the evil eye is put or in case of appearance of other illnesses there also take place either propitiatory gratifying or expiatory sacrifice. We all describe them in a separate chapter called “Episodic sacrifices”.

Spring sacrifices:

Aka umen patty

(sacrifice of porridge before spring ploughing) takes place before the beginning of spring ploughing.

Varlah patty

(sacrifice of porridge in hounor of spring sowing) takes place after the end of sowing of fields.

Ketyu Umen patty

(sacrifice of porridge before depasturing the cattle) takes place before depasturing the cattle for the first time.

Uchuk (field sacrifice)

the largest collective propitiatory sacrifice during the period of ripening of corn for rain and harvest.

Shcherschi chyuke

(sparrow sacrifice) - propitiatory offering, so that “the girls and fellows could get married this year”. It takes place right away on the next day after field sacrifice.

Autumn sacrifices:

Kashchhi chyuk

(evening sacrifice) – takes place at the very beginning of the sacrificial month, gratifying for health of the family and for breed of the cattle. It’s done every three or five years.

Tura chyuke

(sacrifice to the God) – in some places it’s the first gratifying offering, but it is spread only on a small territory.

Hur chyuke

(sacrifice of a goose) – takes place in autumn, if possible at a new moon, when geese has grown up enough. An expiatory sacrifice to the “major good spirit”, so that he didn’t send illnesses on them. It takes place only in three – five years. There are also other small expiatory sacrifices as shyv nimere (sacrifice of brew and kissel to water) by the river of “the major good spirit”, there is also vut chyuke (sacrifice to flame), yereh chyuke (sacrifice to yereh) at certain sacred places, so that she didn’t sand illnesses to them.

Karta patty

(sacrifice of porridge to the host-spirit of the cattle-shed) – when first snow falls, a thank-offering to the God since he kept the cattle in safety during summer.

Kilesh patty

(sacrifice of porridge to the spirits of forefathers of the family) takes place almost right away after the previous sacrifice – for the health of the family, in particular – thanksgiving for the past and propitiatory sacrifice about the future.

Shyv mimere

(sacrifice of brew in honour of the water spirits) is made to the spirits that live in water when rivers are frozen, - by way of expiation for different illnesses.

Sara chyuke

(sacrifice of beer) – the largest autumn sacrifice, presentation of new bread. It is celebrated during one of the weeks of sacrificial month, mainly either on Wednesday or Sunday evening. Southern Chuvash celebrate it at a new moon.

Hort chyuke

(sacrifice in honour of guardian spirits) is celebrated on the same day when sacrifice of beer takes place, thanksgiving for multiplying of bees and honey.

Hert-schurt patty

(sacrifice of porridge in honour of the guardian spirit of the house hert-shchurt) – a thank-offering to the spirit that guards the house, and it’s made by the hostess in the middle of winter or at the beginning of spring on Wednesday or Sunday evening. It’s made only every three years.

Episodical sacrifices:

Neekes patty

(sacrifice of porridge when foundation of a new house is laid) – a pleading blessing of the God, a sacrifice that is made when building a house.

Ene turry chyuke

(sacrifice in honour of the deity-guardian of cows) – a thanks-offering during calving.

Sacrifice against evil eye

a pleading sacrifice to the mother of God, Pyulechshche and to the God, so that they could protect from illnesses, sent as a result of an overlook.

Sacrifice against pain in ears.

An expiatory sacrifice to the God, so that he could stop the pain in ears.

Sacrifice to kiremets

an expiatory sacrifice to kiremets in case of illnesses, which as people consider were caused by kiremets.

Sacrifice to man-kil

an expiatory sacrifice against illnesses the reason of which appears to be man-kil (the place where sacrificial animals are slaughtered).

Here in brief are presented all heathen Chuvash sacrifices; they are given in an order that was possible to restore despite of instability of sacrifices. Sacrifices can be made any day of the week, except Tuesday. However there’s a popular belief according to which Tuesday has negative characteristics: people don’t make sacrifices on that day and don’t begin anything important as well. As the chuvash proverb says “Even a bird doesn’t make a nest on Tuesday” (ytlari kun kayak ta yava shchyvarmas). But – as we have said above – any other day except this is suitable for making a sacrifice, but there is information, showing that earlier during the period of heathenism development most of sacrifices corresponded to this or that day of the week. Even at present time Southern Chuvash sacrifice beer and make a sacrifice to the house-spirit on Wednesday evening or on Sunday evening. Thursday was a sacrificial day with Northern Chuvash. Apparently Wednesday among other days of the week was the earliest one, the name yun kun “bloody day” serves as the evidence of this fact, and it’s nothing more than memory about early bloody sacrifices. The period of the day is not clarified as well. Only evening sacrifice and sacrifice to the house-spirit are done in the evening, others take place in the afternoon.

Taking into account type of an offering and things, presented to the God or spirits, all offerings can be divided into two parts: bloody and bloodless. During bloody sacrifices four-legged animals or birds are slaughtered and sacrificed, while during bloodless sacrifices food and beverages made of corn and flour serve as objects of sacrifice. The most ancient type of sacrifices was a white mare, which was sacrificed during famous spring field sacrifice, however lately as a result of poverty the old custom was changed, since instead of expensive white mare a heifer was sacrificed. At present time only old men remember this quite an ancient type of heathen sacrifice. On account of the same field offering to the God rams are sacrificed. From time to time their number is specially determined. In some places (for example with Northern Chuvash) great attention is paid to the fact that sacrificial rams should be of the white colour, since people are sure that the God likes white.
In addition to the field offering there is also an evening sacrifice (kashchhi chyuk), a partially spread sacrifice to the God (Tura chyuke) and a sacrifice of a goose to the “major sacred” (hur chyuke) – all of them belong to bloody sacrifices. During evening offering three rams are sacrificed, during offering to the God – one ram, and while offering of a goose one goose is usually sacrificed. Although there’s a goose when offering beer (sara chyuke), one shouldn’t rank them among bloody sacrifices, since slaughtering and offering of the goose takes place not in the context of customs which were an integral part of bloody sacrifices.

Objects of bloodless sacrifices are almost always made of grain. Very often there is met porridge made of barley (pata), round cake (pashalu), small wheat loaf of bread (hapartu), thin round bread (yusman), and during sacrifice of beer there is met beer (sara) made of rye and barley. When sacrificing porridge in honour of spring sowing (varlah patty) and while sparrow sacrifice (shchershchy chyuke) except porridge and small wheat bread among sacrificial food there are also three eggs.

The place of sacrifice is changing from time to time. If sacrifice is done in the house, people usually pray in the main place of izba, in kerek, on the right side in front of the door, sometimes in the middle of izba, in front of the door. In many cases of sacrifices a table is set in the corridor from the direction of the yard (paltar) and the rite of sacrifice takes place there. In most areas for field sacrifice – there are some even at present time – there was a separately paled place somewhere on the field, that was never ploughed, mowed, where cattle was never pastured, so that it was clean. People were respectful and felt holy trepidation to those places of sacrifice, in some places even after adoption of Christianity people didn’t dare to plough such fields or take them for one’s own. In some lands while making a sacrifice even women were not allowed to be there, they were standing outside. Sacrifices to kiremets, water spirits, yereh were done on certain places, by the river or by the hill of this or that spirit. Either at home or outside under the blue sky people stand to pray – without exception of some distinctions – with their head turned to the East, bows are also made in the direction of the East.

Southern Chuvash sometimes turn to the South rather than to the East, but this most likely is the late influence of the Tatar, because it’s widely known that the Moslem people when praying also turn to the south (from the Volga land) in direction of Kybla. Formerly the Chuvash built their houses in a way, similar to that on the territory of Northern Chuvash, which have been preserved up to now, when the door of the house looked the East. Thus there is a rule, according to which, while praying and making sacrifices in the house people turn to the door, even if the door at present time doesn’t look east. At this time the door is put ajar, so that the pray could leave the house and could rise to the free sky of the God through the ajar door. It’s reasonable that when making a sacrifice to kiremet, people turn in the direction of the river or the hill of an evil spirit, since an offering is addressed to him. According to popular belief the spirit, which guards the house, lives on the furnace, and people turn in the direction of the furnace when making a sacrifice to him.

The custom of turning the look in the direction of the East and making a sacrifice to the God undoubtedly has a very early, shamanistic nature and dates back to the epoch of putting in honour of heavenly bodies, first of all the sun, the most wonderful heavenly body, the source of almost all blessings.

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